Jan Bergstra & Laurens Buijs
Amsterdam Gender Theory Research Team
Version 1: November 10, 2023
The latest version can be read here
It is unfortunate that the discussion of gender is so often flattened to the question of whether or not there are more than two genders. Gender is about more than that. Gender is about how we deal with the concepts of man and woman, in ourselves and in society. With gender, we do not deny biological sex, but merely acknowledge that it takes more to understand male and female (and masculine and feminine) than biology.
In this blog, we will consider not only formal gender (the logical classification of gender), but also psychological gender (gender as a subjective experience of identity) and social gender (gender in our culture and society). In our work, we fly these different aspects of gender separately, without assuming a priori that they should inform each other.
Read more about formal gender:
Why gender science may pay more attention to formal gender
To understand why gender complements biological sex, it is useful to consider biology first. In humans, as in most mammals, the distinction between the two biological sexes is important. Evolutionary biologists speak of sexual dimorphism: all kinds of evolutionary processes develop around physical differences between the sexes male and female. These differences go beyond reproductive organs to include secondary sex characteristics such as physique, facial features, and breast tissue development in women. This dimorphism is the result of evolutionary processes and serves biological and reproductive functions. But there is also biological complexity. It is precisely by zooming in on two exceptions to the rule – transgender and intersex persons – that it becomes clear exactly what gender is, and how it differs from sex.
Starting with those with gender dysphoria: they do not feel at home in their birth sex. Gender dysphoria can have several causes. Although details about this are still unclear and a complex phenomenon such as gender dysphoria often involves the intermingling of different causes, we can distinguish at least two extremes. Gender dysphoria can be caused by trauma; if so, treatment with psychotherapy is an option. But dysphoria can also be congenital. Evidence is accumulating that the development of gender dysphoria may be influenced (in part) by genetic and hormonal factors, even as early as the early stages of embryonic development. In that case, psychotherapy makes no sense, at least not to treat the dysphoria, and a transition process becomes relevant.
When people with gender dysphoria go through such a transition, they become transgender. People used to speak of transsexuality and transsexuals, but those terms are becoming less common. That’s because transsexualism emphasizes actual sex change with medical procedures. However, changing the sex organs is painful and invasive, and not always with desired results. In contemporary transitions, therefore, there is more and more room for partial transitions with less medicalization. For many transgender people, it is enough if they can convincingly present themselves to the world as the opposite sex. Much can already be accomplished with changes in clothing, makeup, hair, motor skills and voice through speech therapy. Medical treatments are increasingly limited to cosmetic surgery and hormone therapy. Many transgender people today place less importance on gender reassignment surgery.
Read more about the complexity of gender and sexuality in evolutionary biology:
Evolutionary theory has now made room for diversity of sexuality and gender
In addition, there are people who are born with an intersex condition. They also used to be called hermaphrodites, but this term is being used less and less because it does not do justice to the great complexity of intersex variations. People with an intersex condition have sexual characteristics of both sexes for a variety of reasons. There are a total of more than 30 different variations, arising from a variety of atypical developments in hormones or chromosomes.
People with intersex conditions often rely on medical support, but given the wide variation in intersex conditions, customization should always be sought there. For intersex persons, it is important to end medical procedures without their consent. Indeed, traditionally, it has been customary to perform surgery immediately after birth, in case an intersex condition is diagnosed (incidentally, not all intersex conditions are visible immediately at birth). The idea that doctors decide in consultation with parents for a newborn baby whether it should be a boy or a girl, i.e., without a say from the intersex person themselves, is now understandably under fire. It is important that there be more research into which interventions for which conditions are justified at birth, and which should be left to the intersex person themselves. Just what gender-affirming surgeries are necessary or desirable, and when, is still under debate. Regardless, many people with an intersex condition rely on lifelong medical care, such as hormone therapy.
For transgender and intersex persons, their being male or female is slightly different from their biological sex. By studying these minority groups closely, we know that there is such a thing as a primary gender identity: a basic sense of “I am male” or “I am female.” In most people, the primary gender identity is consistent with the biological sex; we call this cisgender. But you can also have a primary gender identity that is not (entirely) consistent with your sex; we call that transgender. Thus, biological gender is not always sufficient to understand the complexities of being male and female (see also AGTRT-4). This is why it is useful to talk about man and woman in terms of gender: that concept can handle more complexity and nuance.
Many transgender and intersex persons ultimately feel they belong to one of two genders male or female. Many transgender persons want to “transition” from male to female or vice versa, and many intersex persons also feel most comfortable with one of two genders. But this is not true for all of them. Some fall between the two to such an extent that they cannot identify with either. These people are best off with a “neutral gender” as their primary gender identity. Neutral, in our opinion, is a better word than non-binary. Non-binary as a label we find problematic because it assumes that all other people have a “binary gender,” while it is unclear what that means and by no means everyone will agree (see also AGTRT-3).
Read more about our critique of non-binary gender:
Non-binary gender through the lens of formal gender theory
So gender is a helpful concept to complement gender in our thinking about male and female, and what is in between. Zooming in on the exceptions to the rule – transgender and intersex – has made it clear that people possess a primary gender identity in addition to a biological sex. But gender has direct relevance not only to these people, but to all of us. In fact, there is not only a primary gender identity, but also a secondary gender identity.
This secondary gender identity comes to light when we look at the functioning of the human psyche in a general sense. Partly because of analytical psychology, we know that all men have a feminine side in their personality, and all women have a masculine side, whether we are aware of it or not. Thus, this is not about the basic sense of “I am male,” “I am female” or “I am neutral” (the primary gender identity), but about the extent to which, regardless of our primary gender identity, we have fully developed our masculine and feminine personality traits.
Every human being has both masculine and feminine qualities (the anima and animus in Jungian thinking), which together we call the secondary gender identity. These qualities are personality traits that, according to analytical psychology, can only be developed if we are fully aware of them. This awareness is a necessary condition for integrating the qualities into the personality. If these qualities are not balanced, it can lead to all kinds of emotional and mental imbalance. Through shadow work, the secondary gender identity can be developed: thus, male and female qualities are better balanced. This is an intensive and multi-year process that revolves around trauma healing and is often done under the supervision of a psychotherapist. The ultimate goal is to achieve greater autonomy and maturity. So too, developing secondary gender identity is not about biological sex, but about gender.
Read more about shadow work:
With shadow work shine light on your unconscious malice
Finally, there is the social and cultural side of the story. A woman in the Netherlands of 2023 is a different person than a woman in the Netherlands of 1623. A man in the Netherlands is different from a man in Kenya. All of these issues have to do with gender roles and gender norms: another thing other than biological sex. Not only are you born male or female, but you are then made male or female by roles, rituals and norms in society. When sociology talks about masculinity and femininity, it usually refers to the latter process.
All societies have their own gender roles and gender norms: they are always evolving. But at its foundation, gender relations at the societal level can only be classified in two ways: patriarchal or matriarchal. In a patriarchal culture, masculinity and femininity are arranged vertically, in a more matriarchal culture horizontally. Matriarchal cultures are currently a rarity on Earth, but there are all kinds of indications that humanity will move back to them in the coming decades, after 12,000 years of patriarchal culture. These types of social shifts are the result of shifts in collective human consciousness (secondary gender identity), and thus can only be understood in terms of gender and not sex.
Read more about the difference between patriarchal and matriarchal societies:
What is the difference between patriarchal and matriarchal cultures?
In conclusion, then, gender as a concept has several applications. Indeed, most people are biologically male or female, and their primary gender identity is consistent with this sex (they are cisgender). At the same time, there are people with gender dysphoria or an intersex condition, in whom gender and sex start to diverge. Some of them form a small neutral middle group. Thus, one could say that despite gender dimorphism, there are three (primary) genders among people: male, female and neutral.
But gender is not only relevant to people with gender dysphoria or an intersex condition. In addition to a primary gender identity, all people have a secondary gender identity. And therein lies a lot of work for all of us to do, even if a simple relationship with your primary gender identity is given to you. After all, we all grew up in a patriarchal culture, resulting in an imbalance between our masculine and feminine qualities. Every person can take steps to restore balance with shadow work.
Gender is not just a buzzword that adds nothing to biological sex and that we might as well do without. The word gives language to all kinds of deep layers of manhood and womanhood. It’s about how we shape our gender in identity. About how we all deal with the masculine and feminine sides of our personality, and about how masculinity and femininity are established through roles and norms in our society.